@article {4879,
	title = {The adsorption of microcystin-LR by natural clay particles},
	journal = {Toxicon},
	volume = {38},
	number = {2},
	year = {2000},
	note = {ISI Document Delivery No.: 257VLTimes Cited: 40Cited Reference Count: 35},
	month = {Feb},
	pages = {303-308},
	type = {Article},
	abstract = {The microcystin cyanobacterial hepatotoxins represent an increasingly severe global health hazard. Sines microcystins are found world wide in drinking water reservoirs concern about the impact on human health has prompted investigations into remedial water treatment methods. This preliminary study investigates the scavenging from water of microcystin-LR by fine-grained particles known to have a high concentration of the clay minerals kaolinite and montmorillonite. The results show that more than 81\% of microcystin-LR can be removed from water by clay material. Thus, microcystin-LR is indeed scavenged from water bodies by fine-grained particles and that this property may offer an effective method of stripping these toxins from drinking water supplies. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	keywords = {BLOOM, cyanobacteria, DECOMPOSITION, DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH TOXINS, ENVIRONMENT, IDENTIFICATION, OKADAIC ACID, OSCILLATORIA-AGARDHII, PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE INHIBITORS, TUMOR PROMOTION},
	isbn = {0041-0101},
	url = {<Go to ISI>://000083803000016},
	author = {Morris, R. J. and Williams, D. E. and Luu, H. A. and Holmes, C. F. B. and Andersen, R. J. and Calvert, S. E.}
}
@article {4158,
	title = {Bioaccumulation and clearance of microcystins from salt water, mussels, Mytilus edulis, and in vivo evidence for covalently bound microcystins in mussel tissues},
	journal = {Toxicon},
	volume = {35},
	number = {11},
	year = {1997},
	note = {ISI Document Delivery No.: YM145Times Cited: 73Cited Reference Count: 48},
	month = {Nov},
	pages = {1617-1625},
	type = {Article},
	abstract = {Over a period of 3 days saltwater mussels, Mytilus edulis, were fed a cyanobacteria, Microcystis aeruginosa, that contained a high concentration of microcystins, The mussels were killed on a periodic basis over the course of 2 months, Mussels were also collected at two sites were high levels of microcystins in tissues had been noted. A strategy based on the chemically unique nature of the C-20 beta-amino acid, (2S,3S,8S,9S)-3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoi c acid (Adda), portion of the microcystins was used in conjunction with a protein phosphatase (PPase) assay to analyse for both covalently bound microcystins and free microcystins in the mussel tissues, The mussel PPase assay results were compared with the Lemieux oxidation gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) analysis. Less than 0.1\% of the total microcystin burden in the mussel tissue was found to be extractable with MeOH. Thus, direct evidence was provided for the existence of covalently bound microcystins in mussel tissues in vivo. The mussels rapidly cleared the covalently bound microcystins when transferred to untreated seawater. Within 4 days the total microcystin burden dropped from a high of 336.9 (+/- 45.8) mu g/g wet tissue to 11.3 (+/- 2.6) mu g/g. After 4 days postexposure until completion of the experiment the total levels remained below the detection limits of the GCMS method, The levels of free microcystins, extracted with MeOH and detected by the PPase assay, fell from 204 ng/g wet tissue to a residual 14 ng/g over a 53 day postexposure period. Presumably the bound microcystin present in the mussel tissue exists as a covalent complex with the PP-1 and PP-2A enzymes. We conclude that in any shellfish monitoring program it is the total tissue microcystin burden that needs to be considered. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.},
	keywords = {AERUGINOSA, BLUE-GREEN-ALGAE, cyanobacteria, DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH TOXINS, IDENTIFICATION, LR, OKADAIC ACID, PEPTIDE TOXIN, PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE INHIBITORS, TUMOR PROMOTION},
	isbn = {0041-0101},
	url = {<Go to ISI>://000071033700005},
	author = {Williams, D. E. and Dawe, S. C. and Kent, M. L. and Andersen, R. J. and Craig, M. and Holmes, C. F. B.}
}
@article {4156,
	title = {C-14-Labeled microcystin-LR administered to Atlantic salmon via intraperitoneal injection provides in vivo evidence for covalent binding of microcystin-LR in salmon livers},
	journal = {Toxicon},
	volume = {35},
	number = {6},
	year = {1997},
	note = {ISI Document Delivery No.: XG731Times Cited: 32Cited Reference Count: 18},
	month = {Jun},
	pages = {985-989},
	type = {Article},
	abstract = {The tissue distribution and clearance of radiolabeled microcystin-LR administered to Atlantic salmon via i.p. injection has been re-examined using uniformly C-14-labeled toxin, Significant differences were found to exist between these results and those obtained when fish received an i.p. injection of tritium-labeled dihydromicrocystin-LR. In addition, MeOH liver extracts were assayed by both phosphatase assay and C-14 counts and the results compared with the total levels of incorporation determined by digestion and subsequent C-14 counting of the same liver tissues. An attempt to investigate the metabolism and to document the putative products was also undertaken. It was found that microcystin-LR was extensively metabolized to compounds that are more polar than the parent compound. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.},
	keywords = {biotransformation, CHROMATOGRAPHY, DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH TOXINS, DISEASE, IDENTIFICATION, INHIBITOR, POTENT, PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE, TISSUE DISTRIBUTION, TYPE-1},
	isbn = {0041-0101},
	url = {<Go to ISI>://A1997XG73100017},
	author = {Williams, D. E. and Craig, M. and Dawe, S. C. and Kent, M. L. and Andersen, R. J. and Holmes, C. F. B.}
}
@article {4157,
	title = {Evidence for a covalently bound form of microcystin-LR in salmon liver and dungeness crab larvae},
	journal = {Chemical Research in Toxicology},
	volume = {10},
	number = {4},
	year = {1997},
	note = {ISI Document Delivery No.: WU385Times Cited: 56Cited Reference Count: 55},
	month = {Apr},
	pages = {463-469},
	type = {Article},
	abstract = {The chemically unique nature of the C-20 beta-amino acid (2S,3S,8S,9S)-3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoi c acid (Adda) portion of the microcystins has been exploited to develop a strategy to analyze for the total microcystin-1R (1; see Figure 1) burden in salmon liver and crab larvae tissues. Lemieux oxidation of microcystin-LR (1) gives 2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutanoic acid (2), a unique marker for the presence of microcystins. The butanoic acid 2 can be isolated and detected by GC/MS from the livers of Atlantic salmon that received an ip injection of microcystin-1R (1) and from tissues of wild-caught crab larvae. The Lemieux oxidation-GC/MS results are compared with those from MeOH extraction-PPase analysis. Only similar to 24\% of the total microcystin-1R (1) burden in salmon liver tissue is found to be extractable with MeOH. Similarly, the Lemieux oxidation-GC/MS method detected 10 000-fold greater microcystin concentrations in Cypress Island Dungeness crab larvae than did the MeOH extraction-PPase method. The disparity in microcystin concentrations measured by the two methods is taken as direct evidence for the existence of covalently bound microcystins in vivo.},
	keywords = {BLUE-GREEN-ALGAE, CYCLIC, DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH TOXINS, DIHYDROMICROCYSTIN-LR, HEPATOCELLULAR, OKADAIC ACID, PEPTIDE TOXIN, PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE INHIBITORS, RAT-LIVER, TISSUE DISTRIBUTION, TUMOR PROMOTION, UPTAKE},
	isbn = {0893-228X},
	url = {<Go to ISI>://A1997WU38500017},
	author = {Williams, D. E. and Craig, M. and Dawe, S. C. and Kent, M. L. and Holmes, C. F. B. and Andersen, R. J.}
}
@article {3552,
	title = {TISSUE DISTRIBUTION AND CLEARANCE OF TRITIUM-LABELED DIHYDROMICROCYSTIN-LR EPIMERS ADMINISTERED TO ATLANTIC SALMON VIA INTRAPERITONEAL INJECTION},
	journal = {Toxicon},
	volume = {33},
	number = {2},
	year = {1995},
	note = {ISI Document Delivery No.: QQ042Times Cited: 33Cited Reference Count: 20},
	month = {Feb},
	pages = {125-131},
	type = {Article},
	abstract = {The two epimers of [H-3]dihydromicrocystin-LR (spec. act. 32.6 mu Ci/mu mole) were synthesized by reduction of microcystin-LR, a cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxin, with sodium boro[H-3]hydride. In Atlantic salmon, following an i.p. injection of the epimers (0.1 mg of toxin/100 g), the toxins were; after 2 hr, concentrated in the liver and pyloric caeca and intestine; after 5 and 22 hr, concentrated in the liver; and after 46 hr concentrated in the liver and kidney. The maximum concentration in the liver, 4.9 +/- 0.5\% of the injected dose, was observed at 5 hr. At 46 hr the incorporation of tritium in the liver was 2.4\%. The total whole body incorporation of tritium label at 2, 5, 22 and 46 hr was 67.9 +/- 7.3\%, 78.4 +/- 3.1\%, 54.5 +/- 6.6\% and 12.2\%, respectively. The per cent levels of incorporation are significantly lower and the clearance rates are significantly higher than those observed in mice. The ratio of relative concentrations of radiolabel observed in the livers and flesh indicates that extremely low levels of microcystin-LR would be present in the flesh of fish afflicted with {\textquoteright}netpen liver disease{\textquoteright}. Coupled with further evidence, it is suggested that the consumption of Atlantic salmon suffering from {\textquoteright}netpen liver disease{\textquoteright} does not represent a potential human health hazard.},
	keywords = {AERUGINOSA, DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH TOXINS, HEPATOTOXINS, IDENTIFICATION, MICROCYSTIN-LR, NETPEN LIVER-DISEASE, TOXICITY},
	isbn = {0041-0101},
	url = {<Go to ISI>://A1995QQ04200002},
	author = {Williams, D. E. and Kent, M. L. and Andersen, R. J. and Klix, H. and Holmes, C. F. B.}
}
@article {2753,
	title = {IDENTIFICATION OF PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE INHIBITORS OF THE MICROCYSTIN CLASS IN THE MARINE-ENVIRONMENT},
	journal = {Toxicon},
	volume = {31},
	number = {11},
	year = {1993},
	note = {ISI Document Delivery No.: MM430Times Cited: 38Cited Reference Count: 28},
	month = {Nov},
	pages = {1407-1414},
	type = {Article},
	abstract = {Toxins produced by marine phytoplankton represent a severe global health hazard to humans that eat seafood and are also responsible for massive natural fish kills in specialized bloom situations. Tumour-promoting hepatotoxins from the freshwater microcystin/nodularin class were identified in Northeastern Pacific Ocean, Eastern Canadian and European mussels for the first time. These hepatotoxins were detected at biologically active levels up to three-fold higher than accepted quarantine levels for the diarrhetic shellfish toxin okadaic acid (OA), based on their activity (in microcystin-LR equivalent units) in a liquid chromatography (LC)-linked protein phosphatase bioassay. The presence of microcystins/nodularins in oceanic shellfish identifies a potentially novel class of intoxication which is also prevalent in other forms of marine aquatic life, namely sponges and fish. The widespread presence of prokaryotic microcystins and nodularins in the marine environment may be indicative of the importance of signal transduction pathways involving potent inhibition of protein phosphatases in early marine eukaryotes.},
	keywords = {DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH TOXINS, HIGHER-PLANTS, LR, nodularin, OKADAIC ACID, POTENT, TYPE-1},
	isbn = {0041-0101},
	url = {<Go to ISI>://A1993MM43000005},
	author = {Chen, D. Z. X. and Boland, M. P. and Smillie, M. A. and Klix, H. and Ptak, C. and Andersen, R. J. and Holmes, C. F. B.}
}
